Clostridioides difficile

(aka Clostridium difficile)

Bacteria
General | Carbohydrate O/F | Substrate utilisation | Enzymes | Metabolites | Antibiotics

Overview

  • Clostridioides difficile, (aka Clostridium difficile), is a Gram-positive, spore-forming, strictly anaerobic, motile, rod-shaped bacterium. It has been detected in at least 27 gut microbiome compilation studies or metastudies. The DNA G+C content is 28.0%. Clostridioides difficile is often a widespread coloniser of gut. (Browne2016; Lawson2016; Rainey2011eBergey; Yutin2013)



  • This organism has been recovered from human faeces, soil, clinical specimens (rare), and other animals. The risk classification (www.baua.de) for this organism is 2, i.e., risk of individual infection, but low risk of spread (notes: human and animal pathogen). Known to cause illness. Is a known gut commensal. Robust growth can have negative consequences for gut health.
    • QUIRKS
  • Produces 5-aminovalerate and 2-aminobutyrate. Also appears to uniquely produce p-cresol as a breakdown product of tyrosine metabolism, which gives the diarrhoea a distinct odour.
    • GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (Lawson2016); (Rainey2011eBergey); (Yutin2013);
    Character Response
  • Substrates hydrolysed or digested:
  • aesculin; gelatin; milk;
  • 🌡
  • Temperature tolerance:
  • grows at 25℃; grows at 45℃; Grows optimally at 30-37℃.
  • H+
  • Acid from carbohydrates usually produced:
  • fructose; glucose; mannose; mannitol;
  • ⥅
  • Substrates assimilated or utilised:
  • fructose; alanine; aspartate; isoleucine; leucine; methionine; phenylalanine; proline; serine; threonine; valine; pyruvate;
  • ±
  • Strain-dependent substrate utilisation:
  • mannitol; mannose; melezitose;
  • Active enzymes:
  • hyaluridonase;
  • ±
  • Strain-dependent active enzymes:
  • esterase C4; esterase lipase C8;
    • SPECIAL FEATURES (Lawson2016); (Rainey2011eBergey); (Yutin2013);
    Character Response
  • ✓
  • Metabolites produced:
  • ethanolminor; H₂S (variable); H₂;
  • ✗
  • Metabolites not produced:
  • formate; lactate; valerate; indole;
  • ±
  • Nitrate:
  • strain dependent
  • Pigments:
  • fluorescent
    • RESPONSE TO ANTIBIOTICS (Lawson2016); (Goldstein2018a); (Goldstein2013a); (Goldstein2013b); (Tyrrell2012); (Citron2012a); (Snydman2008); (Goldstein2006); (Goldstein2006c); (Goldstein2005); (Citron2003); (Citron2001); (Goldstein2000a); (Goldstein1999); (Schaumann1999); (Goldstein1999b); (Goldstein1991);
    Class Active Resistant
  • Penicillins:
  • amoxicillin; amoxicillin-clavulanic acid; ampicillin; ampicillin-sulbactam; azlocillin; benzylpenicillin; doripenem; imipenem; meropenem; penicillin; penicillin G; piperacillin; piperacillin-tazobactam; ticarcillin;
  • aztreonam; bacampicillin; cloxacillin; dicloxacillin; oxacillin;
  • Cephalosporins:
  • cefaclor; cefadroxil; cefazolin; cefdinir; cefepime; cefixime; cefmetazole; cefoperazone; cefotaxime; cefotetan; cefotiam; cefoxitin; cefpodoxime; cefprozil; ceftazidime; ceftizoxime; cefuroxime; cephalothin; moxalactam;
  • Macrolides:
  • fidaxomicin; pristinamycin;
  • josamycin; spiramycin;
  • Tetracyclines:
  • chlortetracycline; doxycycline; meclocycline; methacycline; minocycline; oxytetracycline; tigecycline;
  • Quinolines:
  • clinafloxacin; enoxacin; garenoxacin; gatifloxacin; moxifloxacin; ofloxacin; sarafloxacin; trovafloxacin;
  • ciprofloxacin; clavulanic-acid; gemifloxacin; nalidixic-acid; norfloxacin; pefloxacin; pipemidic-acid;
  • Aminoglycosides:
  • amikacin; dihydrostreptomycin; gentamicin; kanamycin; neomycin; sisomicin; spectinomycin; streptomycin; tobramycin;
  • Polypep/ketides:
  • rifabutin; rifalazil; rifampicin; rifapentine;
  • bacitracin;
  • Heterocycles:
  • chloramphenicol; fusidic-acid; metronidazole;
  • fosfomycin; isoniazid; nitrofurantoin; sulfadiazine; sulfadimethoxine; sulfamethoxazole; sulfanilamide; trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole;
  • Vancomycins:
  • vancomycin; dalbavancin; teicoplanin;
  • Miscellaneous antibiotics:
  • daptomycin; linezolid; pristinamycin;
  • lincomycin; colistin;

  • N/A

  • This multiresistant strain that was isolated from a patient with severe pseudomembranous colitis and caused an outbreak of diarrheal disease in a Swiss hospital. Analysis of the 630 genome sequence revealed that approximately 11% consists of mobile genetic elements. Exchange of mobile elements occurs frequently and contributes to the plasticity of the genome of C. difficile. [PMID: 25636331]

    C. difficile infection (CDI) usually develops in previously hospitalized persons with a recent history of antimicrobial drug use and causes illness with symptoms ranging from mild diarrhea to potentially lethal pseudomembranous colitis. Antimicrobial drugs disrupt the protective gut microbiota, enabling ingested C. difficile spores to germinate in the colon and providing a selective advantage to nonsusceptible strains. Multidrug resistance is frequently found in epidemic C. difficile strains. [PMID: 29553322]

     

     Clostridium difficile R20291 chromosome, complete genome 4,191,339 bp circular DNA Record removed. This RefSeq genome was suppressed because updated RefSeq validation criteria identified problems with the assembly or annotation. NC_013316.1 GI:260685375 

    Clostridium difficile was recently reclassified as Clostridioides difficile. [PMID: 27370902] Clostridium difficile, a toxin-producing, spore-forming bacillus, is a main cause of nosocomial antimicrobial drug̐associated diarrhea in industrialized countries. [PMID: 29553322]

    represented by the reference genome in the Peptoclostridium difficile cluster in rp-75, Clostridioides difficile 630, complete genome (GenBank AC CP010905) is mapped to UP000001978. Functional information on this organism can be found using older sources when the organsim was classified as Clostridium difficile. Information on the strain was no found.

  • GutFeeling KnowledgeBase COMMENTS [Website]

    Clostridium difficile is a Gram-positive, anaerobic bacterium that can asymptomatically colonize the intestine of humans and other mammals. It was originally identified as part of the intestinal microbiota of healthy infants. However, when the normal flora is disturbed for instance as a result of antibiotic treatment C. difficile can overgrow and cause potentially fatal disease. [PMID: 25636331] This multiresistant strain that was isolated from a patient with severe pseudomembranous colitis and caused an outbreak of diarrheal disease in a Swiss hospital. Analysis of the 630 genome sequence revealed that approximately 11% consists of mobile genetic elements. Exchange of mobile elements occurs frequently and contributes to the plasticity of the genome of C. difficile. [PMID: 25636331]

  • Finegold, S. M., Howard, R. A., & Vera, L. S. (1974). Effect of diet on human intestinal fecal flora: comparison of Japanese and American diets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr, 27, 1456–1469.

    • Details

    GENERAL
    Lineage Physiology General Growth Tolerances Hydrol./digest./degr.
    Phylum:  Firmicutes Class:  Clostridia Order:  Eubacteriales Family:  Peptostreptococcaceae Genus:  Clostridioides Alt. name:  Clostridium difficile Gram stain:  + O2 Relation.:  strictly anaerobic Spore:  Endospore Motility:  Swimming Morphology:  Rod Pigment:  fluorescent
    Health:   Negative
    Source:  human faeces, soil, clinical specimens (rare), and other animals
    DNA G+C(%):  28.0
    Opt. T:  30-37℃
    Lower T(℃):  25(+)
    High T(℃):  45(+)
    		Aesculin:  + Urea:  neg Gelatin:  + Starch:  neg Milk:  + Meat:  neg
    CARBOHYDRATE ACID FORMATION
    Monosaccharide O/F Oligosaccharide O/F Polysaccharide O/F Polyol O/F Other O/F
    Arabinose:  neg L-Arabinose:  neg Fructose:  + Glucose:  + Mannose:  + Rhamnose:  neg Ribose:  neg Xylose:  vr Cellubiose:  neg Lactose:  neg Maltose:  neg Melezitose:  vr Sucrose:  vr Trehalose:  vr Glycerol:  neg Mannitol:  + Sorbitol:  neg Salicin:  vr
    SUBSTRATE ASSIMILATION & UTILISATION
    Monosaccharide util/assim Oligosaccharide util/assim Other carboh. util/assim Amino acid util/assim Organic acid util/assim
    Arabinose:  neg Fructose:  + Galactose:  neg Mannose:  d Rhamnose:  neg Ribose:  neg Xylose:  w Cellubiose:  w Lactose:  neg Maltose:  neg Melezitose:  d Raffinose:  neg Sucrose:  neg Trehalose:  w Amygdalin:  neg Glycogen:  neg Inositol:  neg Inulin:  neg Mannitol:  d Salicin:  w Sorbitol:  w Starch:  neg Ala:  + Asp:  + Ile:  + Leu:  + Met:  + Phe:  + Pro:  + Ser:  + Thr:  + Val:  + Pyruvate:  +
    ENZYME ACTIVITY
    Enzymes: General Enzymes: Carbohydrate Enzymes: Protein Enzymes: Arylamidases Enzymes: Esters/fats
    Oxidase:  neg Catalase:  neg Urease:  neg Hyaluridonase:  + Ac-β-glcamnd:  neg α-Fucosidase:  neg α-Galactosidase:  neg β-Galactosidase:  neg α-Glucosidase:  neg β-Glucosidase:  neg β-Glucuronidase:  neg α-Mannosidase:  neg ArgDH:  neg GluDC:  neg AlanineAA:  neg GluGluAA:  neg GlyAA:  neg LeuAA:  vr LeuGlyAA:  neg PyrrolidAA:  neg AlkalineP:  neg AcidP:  neg Esterase(C4):  d EstLip(C8):  d Lecithinase:  neg Lipase:  neg Lipase(C14):  neg
    METABOLITES - PRODUCTION & USE
    Fuel Usable Metabolites Metabolites Released Special Products Compounds Produced

    		Formate:  neg Lactate:  neg Valerate:  neg Ethanol:  minor H2S:  vr H2:  + Indole:  neg Pigment:  fluorescent
    ANTIBIOTICS ℞
    Penicillins & Penems (μg/mL) Cephalosporins (μg/mL) Aminoglycosides (μg/mL) Macrolides (μg/mL) Quinolones (μg/mL)
    amoxicillin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 2, RNG: (1-4)
    Augmentin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.5-2)
    ampicillin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.5-2)
    amp-sulb:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (2–4)
    azlocillin:  Sens
    aztreonam:  Res
    bacampicillin:  Res
    benzyl-pen:  Sens
    cloxacillin:  Res
    dicloxacillin:  Res
    oxacillin:  R(64)
    penicillin:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.5–4)
    penicillin_G:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (1-4)
    piperacillin:  S(0.5/4)
    piper-taz:  S(MIC50): 8, MIC90: 16, RNG: (2–16)
    ticarcillin:  Sens
    tica-clav:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 32, RNG: (0.06–64)
    doripenem:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.5-4)
    ertapenem:  Var(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 8, RNG: (4-8)
    imipenem:  S(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 8, RNG: (4–8)
    meropenem:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (1-4)
    cefaclor:  R(MIC50): 64, MIC90: >64, RNG: (32->64)
    cefadroxil:  Res
    cefazolin:  Res
    cefdinir:  Res
    cefepime:  Res
    cefixime:  R(MIC50): >64, MIC90: >64, RNG: (>64)
    cefmetazole:  R(MIC50): 32, MIC90: 64, RNG: (8->128)
    cefoperazone:  R(MIC50): 32, MIC90: 128, RNG: (16-128)
    cefotaxime:  R(MIC50): 128, MIC90: 256, RNG: (64-256)
    cefotetan:  R(MIC50): 16, MIC90: 16, RNG: (8-32)
    cefotiam:  R(MIC50): >128, MIC90: >128, RNG: (>128)
    cefoxitin:  R(MIC50): 64, MIC90: 128, RNG: (4-128)
    cefpodoxime:  R(MIC50): >64, MIC90: >64, RNG: (64->64)
    cefprozil:  R(MIC50): 64, MIC90: >64, RNG: (64->64)
    ceftazidime:  R(MIC50): 64, MIC90: 128, RNG: (32-256)
    ceftizoxime:  R(MIC50): >128, MIC90: >128, RNG: (>128)
    cefuroxime:  R(MIC50): >64, MIC90: >64, RNG: (64->64)
    cephalothin:  Res
    moxalactam:  R(MIC50): 64, MIC90: 128, RNG: (64-128)
    amikacin:  R(>256)
    dihydrostrept:  Res
    gentamicin:  Res
    kanamycin:  Res
    neomycin:  Res
    sisomicin:  Res
    spectinomycin:  Res
    streptomycin:  Res
    tobramycin:  R(48)
    azithromycin:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: >32, RNG: (0.5–>32)
    erythromycin:  Var(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 16, RNG: (0.25-256)
    fidaxomicin:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (0.06–1)
    clarithromycin:  Var(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.5-128)
    pristinamycin:  S(MIC50): 0.12, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.12–16)
    quin-dalf:  Var(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 16, RNG: (0.5-16)
    roxithromycin:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: >32, RNG: (0.25–>32)
    spiramycin:  R(>32)
    telithromycin:  Var(MIC50): 0.125, MIC90: >32, RNG: (0.06–>32)
    josamycin:  Res
    linezolid:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 2, RNG: (2-4)
    ciprofloxacin:  R(MIC50): >64, MIC90: >64, RNG: (8->64)
    clavulanate:  Res
    clinafloxacin:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.25, RNG: (0.12-8)
    enoxacin:  Sens
    garenoxacin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 1, RNG: (0.5-4)
    gatifloxacin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.5-8)
    gemifloxacin:  R(MIC50): 16, MIC90: 32, RNG: (2-32)
    levofloxacin:  Var(MIC50): 4, MIC90: >128, RNG: (4->128)
    moxifloxacin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 2, RNG: (1-8)
    nalidixic-acid:  Res
    norfloxacin:  R(48)
    ofloxacin:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.5-256)
    pefloxacin:  Res
    pipemidic_acid:  Res
    sarafloxacin:  Sens
    sparfloxacin:  Var(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 16, RNG: (0.5–>16)
    trovafloxacin:  S(MIC50): 0.78, MIC90: 1.56, RNG: (0.39-1.56)
    Tetracyclines (μg/mL) Vancomycin Class (μg/mL) Polypep/ketides (μg/mL) Heterocycles (μg/mL) Other (μg/mL)
    doxycycline:  S(MIC50): 0.125, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.06–16)
    chlortetracycline:  Sens
    meclocycline:  Sens
    methacycline:  Sens
    minocycline:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.25, RNG: (0.25)
    oxytetracycline:  Sens
    tetracycline:  Var(MIC50): 8, MIC90: 32, RNG: (0.125-128)
    tigecycline:  S(MIC50): 0.06, MIC90: 0.125, RNG: (0.06-2)
    dalbavancin:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.25, RNG: (0.125-0.5)
    teicoplanin:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.25, RNG: (0.125-0.25)
    vancomycin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 1, RNG: (0.06-2)
    bacitracin:  R(MIC50): >256, MIC90: >256, RNG: (>256)
    rifabutin:  Sens
    rifalazil:  S(MIC50): 0.0075, MIC90: 0.03, RNG: (0.0019->16)
    rifampicin:  SensRNG: (0.0015/-)
    rifapentine:  Sens
    chloramphenicol:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.125–>32)
    fosfomycin:  R(96)
    isoniazid:  Res
    metronidazole:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (0.125-0.5)
    nitrofurantoin:  Res
    sulfadiazine:  Res
    sulfadimethoxine:  Res
    sulfamethoxazole:  R(32)
    sulfanilamide:  Res
    trimethoprim:  Var(MIC50): 6), MIC90: Var(6
    SXT:  R(>32)
    clindamycin:  Var(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.06->32)
    lincomycin:  Res
    daptomycin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.5-4)
    colistin:  R(>1024)
    fusidic-acid:  SensRNG: (0.0156-1)

    References

    SPECIFIC REFERENCES FOR CLOSTRIDIOIDES DIFFICILE
  • Browne2016 - Culturing of 'unculturable' human microbiota reveals novel taxa and extensive sporulation.
  • Lawson2016 - Reclassification of Clostridium difficile as Clostridioides difficile (Hall and O'Toole 1935) Prevot 1938.
  • Rainey2011eBergey - Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology. Vol. 3, The Firmicutes. Family Clostridiaceae, Genus I. Clostridium - Clostridioides difficile
  • Ridlon2006 - Bile salt biotransformations by human intestinal bacteria
  • Cassir2015 - Clostridium butyricum Strains and Dysbiosis Linked to Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Neonates
  • Debyser2016 - Faecal proteomics: A tool to investigate dysbiosis and inflammation in patients with cystic fibrosis
  • Finegold2002 - Gastrointestinal microflora studies in late-onset autism
  • Fukugaiti2015 - High occurrence of Fusobacterium nucleatum and Clostridium difficile in the intestinal microbiota of colorectal carcinoma patients
  • Gryp2020 - Isolation and Quantification of Uremic Toxin Precursor-Generating Gut Bacteria in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients
  • Heidarian2019 - Altered fecal bacterial composition correlates with disease activity in inflammatory bowel disease and the extent of IL8 induction
  • Kang2010 - Dysbiosis of fecal microbiota in Crohn's disease patients as revealed by a custom phylogenetic microarray
  • Kolho2015 - Fecal Microbiota in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Its Relation to Inflammation
  • Li2012 - Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of the microbiota in ulcerated and non-ulcerated regions in the patients with Crohn's disease
  • Manor2016 - Metagenomic evidence for taxonomic dysbiosis and functional imbalance in the gastrointestinal tracts of children with cystic fibrosis
  • Morita2015 - Gut Dysbiosis in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa
  • Penders2007 - Gut microbiota composition and development of atopic manifestations in infancy: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study
  • PerezBrocal2015 - Metagenomic Analysis of Crohn's Disease Patients Identifies Changes in the Virome and Microbiome Related to Disease Status and Therapy, and Detects Potential Interactions and Biomarkers
  • RajilicStojanovic2011 - Global and deep molecular analysis of microbiota signatures in fecal samples from patients with irritable bowel syndrome
  • Tsuji2018 - Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis in Children with Relapsing Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome
  • Vakili2020 - Characterization of Gut Microbiota in Hospitalized Patients with Clostridioides difficile Infection
  • Hynes2000 - Hyaluronidases of Gram-positive bacteria.
  • Goldstein2018a - Comparative In Vitro Activities of Relebactam, Imipenem, the Combination of the Two, and Six Comparator Antimicrobial Agents against 432 Strains of Anaerobic Organisms, Including Imipenem-Resistant Strains.
  • Goldstein2013a - Comparative in vitro activities of SMT19969, a new antimicrobial agent, against Clostridium difficile and 350 gram-positive and gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic intestinal flora isolates.
  • Goldstein2013b - Comparative in vitro activities of GSK2251052, a novel boron-containing leucyl-tRNA synthetase inhibitor, against 916 anaerobic organisms.
  • Tyrrell2012 - In vitro activity of TD-1792, a multivalent glycopeptide-cephalosporin antibiotic, against 377 strains of anaerobic bacteria and 34 strains of Corynebacterium species.
  • Citron2012a - Comparative in vitro activities of LFF571 against Clostridium difficile and 630 other intestinal strains of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.
  • Snydman2008 - In vitro activities of doripenem, a new broad-spectrum carbapenem, against recently collected clinical anaerobic isolates, with emphasis on the Bacteroides fragilis group.
  • Goldstein2006 - In vitro activity of moxifloxacin against 923 anaerobes isolated from human intra-abdominal infections.
  • Goldstein2006c - Comparative in vitro susceptibilities of 396 unusual anaerobic strains to tigecycline and eight other antimicrobial agents.
  • Goldstein2005 - Comparative in vitro activities of XRP 2868, pristinamycin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, vancomycin, daptomycin, linezolid, clarithromycin, telithromycin, clindamycin, and ampicillin against anaerobic gram-positive species, actinomycetes, and lactobacilli.
  • Citron2003 - In vitro activities of ramoplanin, teicoplanin, vancomycin, linezolid, bacitracin, and four other antimicrobials against intestinal anaerobic bacteria.
  • Citron2001 - Comparative in vitro activities of ABT-773 against 362 clinical isolates of anaerobic bacteria.
  • Goldstein2000a - Comparative In vitro activities of ertapenem (MK-0826) against 1,001 anaerobes isolated from human intra-abdominal infections.
  • Goldstein1999 - In vitro activity of gemifloxacin (SB 265805) against anaerobes.
  • Schaumann1999 - In vitro activities of gatifloxacin, two other quinolones, and five nonquinolone antimicrobials against obligately anaerobic bacteria.
  • Goldstein1999b - Activities of telithromycin (HMR 3647, RU 66647) compared to those of erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, roxithromycin, and other antimicrobial agents against unusual anaerobes.
  • Goldstein1991 - Goldstein EJ, Citron DM. Susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria isolated from intra-abdominal infections to ofloxacin and interaction of ofloxacin with metronidazole.
  • Yutin2013 - A genomic update on clostridial phylogeny: Gram-negative spore formers and other misplaced clostridia.
  • ...............................
    • GUT MICROBIOME COMPILATIONS AND METASTUDIES FOR CLOSTRIDIOIDES DIFFICILE
  • Almeida2019 - A new genomic blueprint of the human gut microbiota.
  • Aujoulat2014 - Temporal dynamics of the very premature infant gut dominant microbiota.
  • Benno1984 - The intestinal microflora of infants: composition of fecal flora in breast-fed and bottle-fed infants.
  • Benno1989 - Comparison of fecal microflora of elderly persons in rural and urban areas of Japan.
  • Byrd2020 - Stability and dynamics of the human gut microbiome and its association with systemic immune traits.
  • Byrd2020 - Stability and dynamics of the human gut microbiome and its association with systemic immune traits.
  • Cassir2015 - Clostridium butyricum Strains and Dysbiosis Linked to Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Neonates
  • De2020 - Metagenomic analysis of gut microbiome and resistome of diarrheal fecal samples from Kolkata, India, reveals the core and variable microbiota including signatures of microbial dark matter.
  • Dubinkina2017 - Links of gut microbiota composition with alcohol dependence syndrome and alcoholic liver disease
  • Finegold1974 - Effect of diet on human fecal flora: comparison of Japanese and American diets
  • Forster2019 - A human gut bacterial genome and culture collection for improved metagenomic analyses.
  • Hu2019 - The Gut Microbiome Signatures Discriminate Healthy From Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients
  • King2019 - Baseline human gut microbiota profile in healthy people and standard reporting template.
  • Lagier2016 - Culture of previously uncultured members of the human gut microbiota by culturomics.
  • LeChatelier2013 - Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers
  • New2022 - Collective effects of human genomic variation on microbiome function.
  • Pandey2012 - Comparative analysis of fecal microflora of healthy full-term Indian infants born with different methods of delivery (vaginal vs cesarean): Acinetobacter sp. prevalence in vaginally born infants.
  • PerezBrocal2015 - Metagenomic Analysis of Crohn's Disease Patients Identifies Changes in the Virome and Microbiome Related to Disease Status and Therapy, and Detects Potential Interactions and Biomarkers
  • RajilicStojanovic2014 - The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota.
  • Salonen2014 - Impact of diet and individual variation on intestinal microbiota composition and fermentation products in obese men.
  • Tyakht2013 - Human gut microbiota community structures in urban and rural populations in Russia.
  • Walker2011 - High-throughput clone library analysis of the mucosa-associated microbiota reveals dysbiosis and differences between inflamed and non-inflamed regions of the intestine in inflammatory bowel disease.
  • Wang2020a - Aberrant gut microbiota alters host metabolome and impacts renal failure in humans and rodents
  • Woodmansey2004 - Comparison of compositions and metabolic activities of fecal microbiotas in young adults and in antibiotic-treated and non-antibiotic-treated elderly subjects.
  • Zeller2014 - Potential of fecal microbiota for early-stage detection of colorectal cancer
  • Zupancic2012 - Analysis of the Gut Microbiota in the Old Order Amish and Its Relation to the Metabolic Syndrome.
  • ...............................
    • GENERAL REFERENCES FOR CLOSTRIDIOIDES DIFFICILE
  • Ludwig2009 - Revised road map to the phylum Firmicutes.
  • CCUG - Culture Collection University of Gothenburg - Entire Collection
    • Added: February 08, 2021