Paraclostridium bifermentans

(aka Clostridium bifermentans)

Bacteria
General | Carbohydrate O/F | Substrate utilisation | Enzymes | Metabolites | Antibiotics

Overview

  • Paraclostridium bifermentans, (aka Clostridium bifermentans), is a Gram-positive, spore-forming, strictly anaerobic, motile, rod-shaped bacterium. It has been detected in at least 15 gut microbiome compilation studies or metastudies. The DNA G+C content is 27%. Paraclostridium bifermentans is a common gut coloniser. (Hall1922; Jyothsna2016; Nakamura1975; Rainey2011fBergey)



  • This organism has been recovered from human faeces, clinical specimens including wounds, abscesses, and blood, and animal sources. The risk classification (www.baua.de) for this organism is 2, i.e., risk of individual infection, but low risk of spread (notes: human and animal pathogen). It is an opportunistic pathogen. Is a known gut commensal.
    • GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (Hall1922); (Jyothsna2016); (Nakamura1975); (Rainey2011fBergey);
    Character Response
  • Substrates hydrolysed or digested:
  • casein; gelatin;
  • 🧂
  • Salt tolerance:
  • tolerates 0.5% salt; tolerates 3% salt; doesn't tolerate 6.5% salt;
  • 💧
  • Bile tolerance:
  • Doesn't tolerate 20% bile
  • pH
  • Acidity tolerance:
  • tolerates pH 6.0-8.0; tolerates pH 8.5; Grows optimally at pH 6-7.
  • 🌡
  • Temperature tolerance:
  • grows at 25℃; grows at 45℃; Grows optimally at 30-37℃.
  • ⥅
  • Substrates assimilated or utilised:
  • fructose; glucose; glycerol; maltose; arginine; aspartate; isoleucine; proline; serine; threonine; valine; butyrate; glycolate; malate; pyruvate;
  • Active enzymes:
  • α-galactosidase; β-galactosidase; α-glucosidase; lecithinase; lipase;
  • ±
  • Strain-dependent active enzymes:
  • alkaline phosphatase; Leu-Gly arylamidase;
    • SPECIAL FEATURES (Jyothsna2016); (Rainey2011fBergey);
    Character Response
  • ✓
  • Metabolites produced:
  • formate; acetate; propionate (minor); butyrate (trace); isobutyrate (minor); ethanolminor; propanoltrace; isovalerate (minor); ammonia; H₂; indole;
  • ✗
  • Metabolites not produced:
  • H₂S;
  • ✗
  • VP test:
  • not active
  • ±
  • Haemolysis:
  • beta(d(present))
  • ✗
  • Nitrate:
  • not reduced
    • RESPONSE TO ANTIBIOTICS (Goldstein2003); (Jyothsna2016); (Goldstein2014); (Goldstein2006c); (Citron2003); (Citron2001); (Goldstein2000a); (Schaumann1999); (Goldstein1991);
    Class Active Resistant
  • Penicillins:
  • amoxicillin; amoxicillin-clavulanic acid; ampicillin; ampicillin-sulbactam; doripenem; ertapenem; imipenem; meropenem; penicillin; penicillin G; piperacillin;
  • Cephalosporins:
  • cefoxitin;
  • cefaclor; cefalexin; cefixime; cefotiam; ceftizoxime;
  • Macrolides:
  • erythromycin; fidaxomicin; quinupristin-dalfopristin;
  • azithromycin; clarithromycin; roxithromycin;
  • Tetracyclines:
  • doxycycline; tigecycline;
  • Quinolines:
  • clinafloxacin; garenoxacin; gatifloxacin; levofloxacin; moxifloxacin; ofloxacin; trovafloxacin;
  • Polypep/ketides:
  • bacitracin;
  • Heterocycles:
  • chloramphenicol; metronidazole;
  • Vancomycins:
  • vancomycin; dalbavancin; teicoplanin;
  • Miscellaneous antibiotics:
  • linezolid; ranbezolid;

  • Finegold, S. M., Howard, R. A., & Vera, L. S. (1974). Effect of diet on human intestinal fecal flora: comparison of Japanese and American diets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr, 27, 1456–1469.

    • Details

    GENERAL
    Lineage Physiology General Growth Tolerances Hydrol./digest./degr.
    Phylum:  Firmicutes Class:  Clostridia Order:  Eubacteriales Family:  Clostridiaceae Genus:  Paraclostridium Alt. name:  Clostridium bifermentans Gram stain:  + O2 Relation.:  strictly anaerobic Spore:  Endospore Motility:  Swimming Morphology:  Rod
    Health:  Unknown
    Source:  human faeces, clinical specimens including wounds, abscesses, and blood, and animal sources
    DNA G+C(%):  27
    Opt. T:  30-37℃
    Lower T(℃):  25(+)
    High T(℃):  45(+)
    NaCl 0.5-2%:  0.5(+)
    NaCl 3-5%:  3(+)
    NaCl >6%:  6.5(neg)
    Opt. pH:  6-7
    pH 6.0-8.0:  6.0-8.0(+)
    pH >8:  8.5(+)
    Bile reaction(%):  20(neg)
    		Urea:  neg Gelatin:  + Starch:  neg Casein:  +
    CARBOHYDRATE ACID FORMATION
    Monosaccharide O/F Oligosaccharide O/F Polysaccharide O/F Polyol O/F Other O/F
    SUBSTRATE ASSIMILATION & UTILISATION
    Monosaccharide util/assim Oligosaccharide util/assim Other carboh. util/assim Amino acid util/assim Organic acid util/assim
    Arabinose:  neg Fructose:  + Galactose:  neg Glucose:  + Mannose:  neg Rhamnose:  neg Ribose:  neg Xylose:  neg Cellubiose:  neg Lactose:  neg Maltose:  w(+) Melezitose:  neg Raffinose:  neg Sucrose:  neg Trehalose:  neg Amygdalin:  neg Glycerol:  + Glycogen:  neg Inositol:  neg Inulin:  neg Mannitol:  neg Salicin:  neg Sorbitol:  neg Starch:  neg Arg:  + Asp:  + Ile:  + Pro:  + Ser:  + Thr:  + Val:  + Benzoate:  neg Butyrate:  + Citrate:  neg Fumarate:  neg Glycolate:  + Malate:  + Pyruvate:  + Succinate:  neg
    ENZYME ACTIVITY
    Enzymes: General Enzymes: Carbohydrate Enzymes: Protein Enzymes: Arylamidases Enzymes: Esters/fats
    Oxidase:  neg Catalase:  neg Urease:  neg Ac-β-glcamnd:  neg α-Fucosidase:  neg α-Galactosidase:  + β-Galactosidase:  + α-Glucosidase:  + β-Glucosidase:  neg β-Glucuronidase:  vr ArgDH:  neg GluDC:  neg AlanineAA:  neg GluGluAA:  neg GlyAA:  neg LeuAA:  neg LeuGlyAA:  d PyrrolidAA:  neg AlkalineP:  d Lecithinase:  + Lipase:  +
    METABOLITES - PRODUCTION & USE
    Fuel Usable Metabolites Metabolites Released Special Products Compounds Produced

    		Formate:  + Acetate:  + Propionate:  minor(+) Butyrate:  trace(+) Isobutyrate:  minor(+) Ethanol:  minor Propanol:  trace Isovalerate:  minor(+) H2S:  neg Ammonia:  + H2:  + Indole:  +
    ANTIBIOTICS ℞
    Penicillins & Penems (μg/mL) Cephalosporins (μg/mL) Aminoglycosides (μg/mL) Macrolides (μg/mL) Quinolones (μg/mL)
    amoxicillin:  S(MIC50): ≤0.125, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (≤0.125-0.5)
    Augmentin:  S(MIC50): ≤0.125, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (≤0.125-0.5)
    ampicillin:  S(MIC50): 0.06, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (0.03–0.5)
    amp-sulb:  S(MIC50): 0.125, MIC90: 1, RNG: (0.06–2)
    penicillin:  S(MIC50): 0.03, MIC90: 0.25, RNG: (≤0.03-0.25)
    penicillin_G:  S(MIC50): 0.125, MIC90: 0.25, RNG: (0.015–0.25)
    piperacillin:  S(≤1/≤1)
    piper-taz:  Var(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 16, RNG: (≤0.125-16)
    tica-clav:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 32, RNG: (0.06–64)
    doripenem:  SensRNG: (0.06-0.125)
    ertapenem:  S(0.125)
    imipenem:  S(MIC50): 0.125, MIC90: 1, RNG: (≤0.015-2)
    meropenem:  S(MIC50): 0.06, MIC90: 0.125, RNG: (0.06–0.125)
    cefaclor:  R(32/-)
    cefalexin:  R(32/-)
    cefamandole:  Var(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 16, RNG: (1-16)
    cefixime:  R(>16/>32)
    cefoperazone:  Var(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 128, RNG: (0.25-128)
    cefotetan:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.25-4)
    cefotiam:  R(MIC50): 16, MIC90: 128, RNG: (1-128)
    cefoxitin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.125–4)
    ceftizoxime:  R(MIC50): 64, MIC90: >128, RNG: (0.125->128)
    moxalactam:  Var(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.5-8)
    azithromycin:  R(MIC50): >32, MIC90: >32, RNG: (0.5–>32)
    erythromycin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.25-8)
    fidaxomicin:  S(0.03)
    clarithromycin:  R(MIC50): 32, MIC90: >32, RNG: (0.25–>32)
    quin-dalf:  S(MIC50): 0.25, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (0.125-0.5)
    roxithromycin:  R(MIC50): >32, MIC90: >32, RNG: (1–>32)
    telithromycin:  Var(MIC50): 1, MIC90: >32, RNG: (0.06–>32)
    linezolid:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.5-4)
    ciprofloxacin:  Var(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.5-8)
    clinafloxacin:  S(0.06/0.25)
    garenoxacin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.25-2)
    gatifloxacin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.25-2)
    levofloxacin:  S(MIC50): 1, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.5-4)
    moxifloxacin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.25-2)
    ofloxacin:  S(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 8, RNG: (0.5-256)
    trovafloxacin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (0.25-1)
    Tetracyclines (μg/mL) Vancomycin Class (μg/mL) Polypep/ketides (μg/mL) Heterocycles (μg/mL) Other (μg/mL)
    doxycycline:  S(MIC50): 0.06, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.03–8)
    tigecycline:  S(MIC50): 0.06, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (0.06–1)
    dalbavancin:  S(MIC50): 0.125, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (≤0.015-1)
    teicoplanin:  S(MIC50): ≤0.06, MIC90: 0.5, RNG: (≤0.06-4)
    vancomycin:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.25->32)
    bacitracin:  S(MIC50): 4, MIC90: 32, RNG: (0.5–32)
    chloramphenicol:  S(2/4)
    metronidazole:  S(MIC50): 0.5, MIC90: 2, RNG: (0.02-2)
    ranbezolid:  S(MIC50): 0.03, MIC90: 0.06, RNG: (≤0.008-0.06)
    clindamycin:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 16, RNG: (0.06->32)
    daptomycin:  Var(MIC50): 2, MIC90: 4, RNG: (0.5-8)

    References

    SPECIFIC REFERENCES FOR PARACLOSTRIDIUM BIFERMENTANS
  • Goldstein2003 - In Vitro Activities of Daptomycin, Vancomycin, Quinupristin- Dalfopristin, Linezolid, and Five Other Antimicrobials against 307 Gram-Positive Anaerobic and 31 Corynebacterium Clinical Isolates.
  • Hall1922 - Differentiation and identification of the sporulating anaerobes.
  • Jyothsna2016 - Paraclostridium benzoelyticum gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from marine sediment and reclassification of Clostridium bifermentans as Paraclostridium bifermentans comb. nov. Proposal of a new genus Paeniclostridium gen. nov. to accommodate Clostridium sordellii and Clostridium ghonii.
  • Ridlon2006 - Bile salt biotransformations by human intestinal bacteria
  • Cassir2015 - Clostridium butyricum Strains and Dysbiosis Linked to Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Neonates
  • Finegold2002 - Gastrointestinal microflora studies in late-onset autism
  • Gryp2020 - Isolation and Quantification of Uremic Toxin Precursor-Generating Gut Bacteria in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients
  • Goldstein2014 - Comparative in vitro activities of SMT19969, a new antimicrobial agent, against 162 strains from 35 less frequently recovered intestinal Clostridium species: implications for Clostridium difficile recurrence.
  • Goldstein2006c - Comparative in vitro susceptibilities of 396 unusual anaerobic strains to tigecycline and eight other antimicrobial agents.
  • Citron2003 - In vitro activities of ramoplanin, teicoplanin, vancomycin, linezolid, bacitracin, and four other antimicrobials against intestinal anaerobic bacteria.
  • Citron2001 - Comparative in vitro activities of ABT-773 against 362 clinical isolates of anaerobic bacteria.
  • Goldstein2000a - Comparative In vitro activities of ertapenem (MK-0826) against 1,001 anaerobes isolated from human intra-abdominal infections.
  • Schaumann1999 - In vitro activities of gatifloxacin, two other quinolones, and five nonquinolone antimicrobials against obligately anaerobic bacteria.
  • Goldstein1991 - Goldstein EJ, Citron DM. Susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria isolated from intra-abdominal infections to ofloxacin and interaction of ofloxacin with metronidazole.
  • Nakamura1975 - Reinvestigation of the Taxonomy of Clostridium Bifermentans and Clostridium Sordellii.
  • Rainey2011fBergey - Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology. Vol. 3, The Firmicutes. Family Clostridiaceae, Genus I. Clostridium - Cluster XI
  • ...............................
    • GUT MICROBIOME COMPILATIONS AND METASTUDIES FOR PARACLOSTRIDIUM BIFERMENTANS
  • Benno1986 - Comparison of the fecal microflora in rural Japanese and urban Canadians.
  • Benno1989 - Comparison of fecal microflora of elderly persons in rural and urban areas of Japan.
  • Cassir2015 - Clostridium butyricum Strains and Dysbiosis Linked to Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Neonates
  • Finegold1974 - Effect of diet on human fecal flora: comparison of Japanese and American diets
  • Finegold1977 - Fecal microbial flora in Seventh Day Adventist populations and control subjects.
  • Lagier2016 - Culture of previously uncultured members of the human gut microbiota by culturomics.
  • MacFarlane2004 - Chemotaxonomic analysis of bacterial populations colonizing the rectal mucosa in patients with ulcerative colitis.
  • New2022 - Collective effects of human genomic variation on microbiome function.
  • Pfleiderer2013 - Culturomics identified 11 new bacterial species from a single anorexia nervosa stool sample.
  • RajilicStojanovic2014 - The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota.
  • Taylor1985 - Nine-year microflora study of an isolator-maintained immunodeficient child.
  • Woodmansey2004 - Comparison of compositions and metabolic activities of fecal microbiotas in young adults and in antibiotic-treated and non-antibiotic-treated elderly subjects.
  • Yang2020 - Species-Level Analysis of Human Gut Microbiota With Metataxonomics.
  • Yang2020a - Establishing high-accuracy biomarkers for colorectal cancer by comparing fecal microbiomes in patients with healthy families
  • Zou2019 - 1,520 reference genomes from cultivated human gut bacteria enable functional microbiome analyses.
  • ...............................
    • GENERAL REFERENCES FOR PARACLOSTRIDIUM BIFERMENTANS
  • Ludwig2009 - Revised road map to the phylum Firmicutes.
    • Added: April 08, 2021